Astronomy in Religion

Picture courtesy Wikimedia






















Astronomical occurrences and calculations are important in determining Holy Days in many religious traditions.

Baha'i: Naw Ruz

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/astronomy/theuniverse/Timekeepingandthecelestial/Calendars/calages/variouscal/Others.htm#Anchor-4711

The Baha'i New Year's Day (Naw Ruz) falls on the Spring Equinox. This usually occurs on 21 March but if the Equinox falls after sunset on 21 March, Naw Ruz is to be celebrated on 22 March because the Baha'i day begins at sunset.

British/Celtic Ancient (also often celebrated by Wiccans)

http://www.crossquarter.net/

Crossquarter days were the markers of the changing seasons, and the solstices and equinoxes that we use now were then considered the midpoints of each season (hence midwinter's and midsummer's days). The crossquarter days are the halfway points between a solstice and equinox, if you see what I mean. A good series of articles outlining solar festivals in many different cultures can be found here under "Seasonal Markers". Meanwhile, here is a simple list of the Celtic seasonal holidays according to my current understanding:

Samhain (crossquarter day) - christianized as All Hallows' Eve/All Saints' Day, aka Halloween. Beginning of winter.

Yule - aka Midwinter's day - winter solstice. By the Roman calendar in use at the time Christmas became established, the winter solstice fell on December 25.

Imbolc (crossquarter day) - persists as Groundhog Day. First day of spring.

Ostara - spring equinox - Easter. Eggs and rabbits = fertility symbols.

Beltane (crossquarter day) - May Day. First day of summer.

Midsummer's day - summer solstice.

Lughnasad (crossquarter day) - christianized as Lammas, "loaf-mass" (first harvest), but now the least remembered of the four crossquarter days. Would be around the beginning of August. First day of autumn.

Autumn equinox.

Christian: Easter

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/easter.html

The usual statement, that Easter Day is the first Sunday after the full moon that occurs next after the vernal equinox, is not a precise statement of the actual ecclesiastical rules. The full moon involved is not the astronomical Full Moon but an ecclesiastical moon (determined from tables) that keeps, more or less, in step with the astronomical Moon.

The ecclesiastical rules are:

• Easter falls on the first Sunday following the first ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or after the day of the vernal equinox;
• this particular ecclesiastical full moon is the 14th day of a tabular lunation (new moon); and
• the vernal equinox is fixed as March 21.

resulting in that Easter can never occur before March 22 or later than April 25. The Gregorian dates for the ecclesiastical full moon come from the Gregorian tables. Therefore, the civil date of Easter depends upon which tables - Gregorian or pre-Gregorian - are used. The western (Roman Catholic and Protestant) Christian churches use the Gregorian tables; many eastern (Orthodox) Christian churches use the older tables based on the Julian Calendar.

In a congress held in 1923, the eastern churches adopted a modified Gregorian Calendar and decided to set the date of Easter according to the astronomical Full Moon for the meridian of Jerusalem. However, a variety of practices remain among the eastern churches.

There are three major differences between the ecclesiastical system and the astronomical system.

• The times of the ecclesiastical full moons are not necessarily identical to the times of astronomical Full Moons. The ecclesiastical tables did not account for the full complexity of the lunar motion.
• The vernal equinox has a precise astronomical definition determined by the actual apparent motion of the Sun as seen from the Earth. It is the precise time at which the apparent ecliptic longitude of the Sun is zero. (Yes, the Sun's ecliptic longitude, not its declination, is used for the astronomical definition.) This precise time shifts within the civil calendar very slightly from year to year. In the ecclesiastical system the vernal equinox does not shift; it is fixed at March 21 regardless of the actual motion of the Sun.
• The date of Easter is a specific calendar date. Easter starts when that date starts for your local time zone. The vernal equinox occurs at a specific date and time all over the Earth at once.

Inevitably, then, the date of Easter occasionally differs from a date that depends on the astronomical Full Moon and vernal equinox. In some cases this difference may occur in some parts of the world and not in others because two dates separated by the International Date Line are always simultaneously in progress on the Earth.

For example, take the year 1962. In 1962, the astronomical Full Moon occurred on March 21, UT=7h 55m - about six hours after astronomical equinox. The ecclesiastical full moon (taken from the tables), however, occurred on March 20, before the fixed ecclesiastical equinox at March 21. In the astronomical case, the Full Moon followed its equinox; in the ecclesiastical case, it preceded its equinox. Following the rules, Easter, therefore, was not until the Sunday that followed the next ecclesiastical full moon (Wednesday, April 18) making Easter Sunday, April 22.

Similarly, in 1954 the first ecclesiastical full moon after March 21 fell on Saturday, April 17. Thus, Easter was Sunday, April 18. The astronomical equinox also occurred on March 21. The next astronomical Full Moon occurred on April 18 at UT=5h. So in some places in the world Easter was on the same Sunday as the astronomical Full Moon.

Egyptian Ancient: Coming of Sopdet.

http://phoenixqi.blogspot.com/2007/03/how-long-does-phoenix-live.html

The Egyptians had a calendar of 365 days; three seasons of 120 days each, and a 5-day period of feasting. The season that interests us is Akhet, the summer growing season. The first day of Akhet which, in 3000 BCE, was at the time of the Summer Solstice, heralded the yearly flooding of the Nile and meant the first day of the agricultural year, the growing season

There is another astronomical event which takes places at that time; the heliacal rising of Sirius, the star we call the Dog Star, one of the most important astronomical bodies to the ancient Egyptians. (A heliacal rising is the appearance of a star above the horizon just before the sun rises.)

While we, today, call Sirius the Dog star because it is the brightest star in the constellation of Canis Major, the Ancient Egyptians called it Sothis or Sopdet/Sepdet. Sopdet, sometimes identified with Isis, was a fertility goddess associated with the star Sirius and the agricultural year. When Sirius/Sothis/Sopdet became visible in the morning sky just before the sunrise, the sighting was celebrated with a festival called "The Coming of Sopdet" because it was the time of year for the waters of the Nile to rise; she brought with her the waters that would bring fertility to the land.

Hindu & Sikh: Karwa Chauth festival

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karwa_Chauth

Karwa Chauth is a traditional Hindu festival and also a Sikh Festivals for married women (Suhagans), and is celebrated in some parts of India. Married women fast one whole day without food or water for the long life of their husbands. The ritual signifies extreme love and devotion to the husband, as evidenced by the wife's willingness to suffer for his well being.

It is celebrated on the fourth night after the full Moon in the month of kartik in the Hindu calendar. Karwa means clay pot and chauth means fourth night after the full moon. It has great social and cultural significance and is mostly practiced in northern India. Wives start their fast at night just after the appearance of the moon, within sight of their husbands. They then wait until the next night's moonrise to begin the fast breaking ceremonies, without consuming any food or drink. In the evening women dress in their best clothing, and adorn themselves with jewellery and henna. On sighting the moon, they look and offer prayers and worship to it, and then receive their first bite of food and water from their husbands. Thereafter, women consume their special meal prepared for the occasion.

Worshipping the moon involves filling up the karwa with specially prepared food and jewellery and offering it to the god. Karwas are also exchanged with other women after that. Further practices involve telling and listening to stories regarding origin of Karwa Chauth.

There are variations within regions, groups, and communities in India about rituals of starting and breaking the fast, and worshipping the moon. In Punjab, for example, women start their fast by consuming food called sergi sent or given by her mother-in-law before the dawn. The fast breaking ceremony involves looking at the moon through a sieve, and then looking at her husband's face. They often close their eyes in the process and do not see anyone but their husbands just after seeing the moon. In other parts of India, there is no provision of sergi.

Jainist and Hindu

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekadasi

Ekadasi is the eleventh lunar day (Tithi) of the shukla (bright) or krishna (dark) paksha (fortnight) respectively, of every lunar month in the Hindu calendar (Panchang). In Hinduism and Jainism, it is considered spiritually beneficial day. Scriptures recommend to observe an (ideally waterless) fast from sunset on the day prior to ekadasi until 48 minutes after sunrise on the day following ekadasi.

Meaning of Ekadasi

Ekadasi is a Sanskrit word, which means 'the eleventh'. It refers to the eleventh day of a fortnight belonging to a lunar month. There are two fortnights in a lunar month—the bright and the dark. So, Ekadasi occurs twice in a month, in the bright fortnight and the dark fortnight.

The special feature of Ekadasi, as most people know it, is a fast, abstinence from food. This is how it is usually understood. In fact, the fast is only a practical expression and a symbol of something else that we are expected to do, which is of special significance to our personality.

Astronomy and astrology

We belong to the solar system — a huge family of which the sun is the head and the planets are the members. The sun guides the activities of this family including us. We are involved in the laws operating in this system. This is used in astrology. Astronomy studies the movements of planets and stars and astrology the effects on the contents of the system. The Ekadasi observance is an astrological phenomenon and it is observed due to this relation we have with some of the planets in the system. Ultimately to assist in purifying our consciousness to assist in re-establishing our awareness of the creator of the solar system By fasting one gives chance to give rest to the digest system, instead of regular heavy meals three times a day more fruits & light food is consumed by doing so person goes more for spiritual life moreover have better control over body & mind biggest gain is keeping healthy. Giving rest to intestine.

Jewish: Rosh Hashanah

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar

Special holiday rules

Day of Week	Number of Days
Monday	353	355	383	385
Tuesday	354			384
Thursday	354	355	383	385
Saturday	353	355	383	385

Although simple math would calculate 21 patterns for calendar years, there are other limitations which mean that Rosh Hashanah may only occur on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays (the "four gates"), according to the following table:

The lengths are described in the section Names and lengths of the months.

In leap years, a 30 day month called Adar I is inserted immediately after the month of Shevat, and the regular 29 day month of Adar is called Adar II. This is done to ensure that the months of the Jewish calendar always fall in roughly the same seasons of the solar year, and in particular that Nisan is always in spring. Whether either Chesvan or Kislev both have 29 days, or both have 30 days, or one has 29 days and the other 30 days depends upon the number of days needed in each year. Thus a leap year of 13 months has an average length of 383½ days, so for this reason alone sometimes a leap year needs 383 and sometimes 384 days. Additionally, adjustments are needed to ensure certain holy days and festivals do or do not fall on certain days of the week in the coming year. For example, Yom Kippur, on which no work can be done, can never fall on Friday (the day prior to the Sabbath), to avoid having two consecutive days on which no work can be done. Thus some flexibility has been built in.

The 265 days from the first day of the 29 day month of Adar (i.e. the twelfth month, but the thirteenth month, Adar II, in leap years) and ending with the 29th day of Heshvan forms a fixed length period that has all of the festivals specified in the Bible, such as Pesach (Nisan 15), Shavuot (Sivan 6), Rosh Hashana (Tishri 1), Yom Kippur (Tishri 10), Sukkot (Tishri 15), and Shemini Atzeret (Tishri 22).

The festival period from Pesach up to and including Shemini Atzeret is exactly 185 days long. The time from the traditional day of the vernal equinox up to and including the traditional day of the autumnal equinox is also exactly 185 days long. This has caused some unfounded speculation that Pesach should be March 21, and Shemini Atzeret should be September 21, which are the traditional days for the equinoxes. Just as the Hebrew day starts at sunset, the Hebrew year starts in the Autumn (Rosh Hashanah), although the mismatch of solar and lunar years will eventually move it to another season if the modern fixed calendar isn't moved back to its original form of being judged by the Sanhedrin (which requires the Beit Hamikdash)

Karaite interpretation

Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the Rabbinical calendar in a few ways: Determination of the first month of the year - (called aviv), which is the month Passover falls out and determination of the first day of each month (Rosh Chodesh).

The 4 rules of postponement are not applied, as they are not found in the Tanakh. It is determined when to add a 13th month by observing the ripening of barley (called abib) in Israel, rather than the calculated and fixed calendar of Rabbinic Judaism. This puts Karaites in sync with the Written Torah, while other Jews are often a month later.

The beginning of each month is determined by the Rosh Chodesh - which can be calculated, but is confirmed by observation of the first sightings of the new moon in Israel.

For several centuries, many Karaites, especially those outside Israel, have just followed the calculated dates of the Oral Law (the Mishnah and the Talmud) with other Jews for the sake of simplicity. However, in recent years most Karaites have chosen to again follow the Written Torah practice.

Muslim: Ramadan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan_%28calendar_month%29

Ramadan or Ramadhan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar and the holiest month in Islam.

The word Ramadan is derived from the word ramd "to burn". The entire month is spent fasting from dawn to dusk. The name came from the time before the Islamic calendar, when the month of Ramadan fell in the summer. Fasting during this month is often thought to figuratively burn away all sins. Muslims believe that the Qur'an was sent down to the earth during this month. Furthermore, Muhammad told his followers that the gates of Heaven would be open all the month and the gates of Hell would be closed. The first day of the next month is spent in great celebrations and rejoicings and is observed as the ‘Festival of Breaking Fast’ or `Eid ul-Fitr.

Timing

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the Islamic lunar calendar year is 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year, Ramadan migrates throughout the seasons. The actual and estimated start and end dates for Ramadan in 2005-2008 were and are as follows:

• 1426 AH – First day: October 2, 2005; last day: November 1, 2005
• 1427 AH – First day: September 23, 2006; last day: October 22, 2006
• 1428 AH – First day: September 12, 2007; last day: October 11, 2007
• 1429 AH – First day: September 1, 2008; last day: September 30, 2008

Fasting in the month of Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam. Most Muslims insist on the local physical sighting of the moon to mark the beginning of Ramadan, but some insist on using the calculated time of the new moon or the Saudi Arabian declaration to determine the start of the month. As a result, Ramadan dates vary in different countries, but usually only by a day or two.

Native American: Vernal Equinox – Lakota

http://www.kstrom.net/isk/stars/starkno3.html

The Lakota were nomadic and didn't always camp at the same spots. The angle of direction and length of the sun's noon shadow can be determined, and provides a simple way to identify these 4 key days that mark the earth's seasons. There are painted hides usually identified in museums as "war bonnet" or "feather circles". These resemble elaborate compass roses used by mariners, and would be handy and portable for making solar shadow time measurements, if a stick with a plumb-bob (an arrowhead, say) were placed upright in the center of the pattern.

Of course there are stars in the sky in daytime; we can't see them because of the sun. This brings us to where we can explain timing of the start of the Lakota sacred spring ceremonial round. It begins, the elders say, when the sun enters the Lakota constellation Dried Willow. This includes Triangulum (which isn't too bright) and the brighter stars in Aries, the Ram. This was traditional in Western ancient astronomy too; spring, the vernal equinox, began when the sun was in Aries, and that was the start of the astronomical year for star-watchers. An easy way to tell when this has happened is by the first-magnitude star Antares ("the opposite of Aries").

So early evening rising just south of the ecliptic (sunpath horizon point) of first magnitude Antares (I don't know its Lakota name) indicates the sun has entered the Dried Willow constellation. Some time ago, this happened around March 20-21, the spring equinox, and was the signal for the Pipe Ceremony at winter camps that heralded a ceremonial round in the Black Hills, ending with a Solstice Sun Dance at Devil's Tower, (Grey Buffalo Horn) when the sun entered the Bear's Tipi constellation (part of Gemini) that represents it.

Now, though, everything in the skies happens about a month later than when these ancient observational calendars -- Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, as well as Lakota -- were drawn up. This happens because the earth's north-south axis revolves around the center of the earth, so the poles slowly sweep out 2 cones in the sky, joined at their tips in the earth's center. This cycle is called the precession of the equinoxes or precessional cycle. (Its cause is a gyroscopic effect of the moon's gravitational attraction to the earth's tidal bulge.) It takes about 26,000 years for one complete revolution to sweep out the double cone. During this time, the pole star changes, to whatever stars lie on the circle swept by the north-pointing end of the earth's axis. The Pole Star -- Wichahpi Owanjila, star that always stands in one place -- was Thuban (Alpha Draconis) in 3000 B.C. Around 7500 AD, Alpha Ceiphei will be the pole star, then Deneb, then bright Vega (14000 AD), then it'll swing around to Thuban again. For many centuries there has been and will be no bright star close enogh to where the pole is to serve as pole star; the bright northern stars and constellations then seem to revolve through the night about an empty center.

Shinto: Winter Solstice

http://www.gaiamind.org/moremoon.html

In the Japanese Shinto calendar this day is sacred to the Sun Goddess Amataseru-no-Mikuni, heroine of one of the world's great and typical festivals of the retreat and return of the Sun. When her brother, the raucous storm god and trickster Susanoo-no-Mikuni, insulted and ridiculed her, she withdrew into a cave and caused Earth to suffer in cold and darkness until other gods gathered to sing and dance outside Amaterasu's cave until they charmed her back out. Among the universal symbolisms of such stories is the principle that light avoids wild and violent action, and can tame it only by limiting it in patterns of order, symbolized by the music and the dance.

Sikh: see Hindu above

Sumerian: Moon phases

http://www.jameswbell.com/a005calendar.html

Holy days, time off from work, were usually celebrated on the first, seventh and fifteenth of each month. [i.e. New Moon, First Quarter Moon, and Full Moon] In addition to these holy days, there were also feast days which varied from city to city.

Wiccan: see British/Celtic Ancient above.

Houses of Worship

Churches, Mosques, Temples, Synagogues, Gurdwaras, and even outdoor circles have one thing in common: they offer a place where people may gather in peace and prayer to honor their Creator in the way they find most fitting for their population and culture.

British/Celtic – Druid Circles

Most people, when contemplating Druid Circles, think of Stonehenge. That may have been the biggest, but it is far from the only stone circle once used by Druids.

Here http://www.sypeland.freeserve.co.uk/site19.htm are photos of a Druid stone circle in Lancashire, "A very neat little ring of small, white stones, the tallest at the north being just over 1m high. There are no central structures within the circle but there is an outer concentric ring of stones that is mostly hidden by the bracken. These outer stones are smaller than the stones of the central circle.

"Although the stones are not large it is an excellent circle to visit with a pleasing 'fairy ring' type of appearance. A circle that is a long way in time and perhaps original purpose than the other, more well known, massive rings of the lake district.

"It also commands excellent views over Morecambe Bay."

Buddhist temples
http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-978.html

You won't find regular daily prayers at Buddhist temples. Buddhist temples are places for personal devotion, ancestor worship, meditation, and offerings for the monks and for the Buddha. Individual devotion is so important to Buddhism, in fact, that Buddhists can construct shrines in their own homes. These shrines, like the great temples, help believers remember their ancestors and Buddhist scriptures.

Visit to a Tibetan Buddhist Temple

http://www.igougo.com/travelcontent/journalEntryActivity.aspx?businesscardID=93132&Mode=2

by MichaelJM on May 3, 2005

The Lama Temple is a massive site and requires determination to view all the buildings and a strong olfactory. Initially this was the residence of an influential official who became Emperor in 1723. In 1744 Yonghe Gong became a lamasery and is now the finest Tibetan Buddist Temple outside of Tibet. This is a working temple and the amount of incense in use is absolutely phenomenal. It is important that you respect the worshippers as they approach the different temples and give them “right of way”.

As we entered the complex, the drum tower and bell tower have pride of place, and there are three temples on the other compass points. There’s an interesting picture gallery of the Lama with a description about how he was called to his divine occupation at a very young age (less than 10). The description is a little hard to understand, but it’s worth sticking with. A lone tower houses a revered Bixi (mythical tortoise-like creature) and superb bronze lions look toward the entrance from the complex’s first temple building.

Moving through the complex, each courtyard had its own fire to enable the many worshippers to light their incense sticks. The protocol was fascinating--bless the incense in one of the side temples and then pray to the Buddha with the incense burning. The Buddhas in the Lama temple were amazing, but one in particular has figured in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the largest Buddha carved out of a single piece of wood. The 55-foot statue is made from sandalwood and is quite unique and so large that I assume the building was created around the Buddha. Whilst we were there, one of the many monks paraded around the temple chanting prayers as he went. The atmosphere in this temple was humbling, as pilgrims knelt before the statue and gazed in awe at its magnificence.

To the rear of the Buddha was a large-relief mini-sculpture depicting Tibetan country scenes with people engaged in “meaningful tasks”. It’s incredibly intricate but, amazingly, is not given a high profile. Indeed, many people who had not explored the temple in detail would have missed this masterpiece.

There was a great museum of religious artefacts with photographic and pictorial representations of all the Dali Lamas. A sombre life-size golden effigy looked down on us from a central stage, and high in the eaves sat a couple of elf-like figures, apparently looking out for the central figure.

Although we’d seen dozens of temples, we were thoroughly enchanted by this one. There is some amazing workmanship on show here, and the bright colours of the rooftops and decorated ceilings just scream for your attention. We saw Buddhas surrounded by lotus flowers, swathed in extravagant fabric, and dwarfed by fan-shaped costumes. There is simply loads to feast your eyes on and a constant reminder that this is a dynamic and active religious place. An uplifting experience, and surprises in every crevice of every building!

Christian Churches

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church

A church is an association of people who share a particular belief system. The term church originated from the pre-Christian Germanic kirika. The term later began to replace the Greek ekklesia and Basilicae within Christendom, c300 AD.

The Greek term ekklesia, which literally means a "convocation" or "called out assembly", was a governmental and political term, used to denote a national assembly, congregation, council of common objective (see Ecclesia (ancient Athens), Ecclesia (Church)) or a crowd of people who were assembled. It did not signify a "building".

The Christian use of this term has its direct antecedent in the Koine Greek translation of the Old Testament (see also Septuagint), where the noun ekklesia has been employed 96 times to denote the congregation of the Children of Israel, which Christians regard as a type of the "Body of Christ", as they also call the Christian Church of Christ.

Some minority traditions of Christianity have maintained that the word translated "church" in scripture most often properly refers to local bodies or assemblies. "Church" is a derivative of the Early Greek word "κυριακον", meaning Lord's house, which in English became "church". The Koine word for church is εκκλησία (ecclesia). Before Christian appropriation of the term, it was used to describe purposeful gatherings, including the assemblies of many Greek city states. Christians of this stripe maintain that a centralizing impulse in the church, present from the early days of the church through the rise of Constantine represented a departure from true Christianity. They therefore reject the authority of the Nicene Creed or the Apostles' Creed.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_%28building%29

A common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles, and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the "west" end of the church or over the crossing.

Daoist Temples

Instead of locating a description of a Daoist Temple, I will let you take a tour of one!

[I had the great honor and privilege to visit The Temple Among the Trees Beneath the Clouds in 2005 in Weaverville, California. ~M~]

"The Weaverville Joss House, a Taoist Temple of Worship, is now a state park and is the oldest still-in-use Chinese Temple in California. The adjoining priest's quarters and community meeting room was also a combination social hall, fraternity house and travelers' hotel, and served as a home for the priest and his family." http://www.trinitycounty.com/joss.htm Even though it is a state park, it is still in use as a Daoist temple, that being one of the stipulations of selling the property to the state in 1956, that the local Daoist community be allowed to use the temple for spiritual ceremony and ritual. The day that I visited, in front of the main altar, there was a special smaller altar for the recently deceased father of a member of the community.

A fellow named Don Smith visited the Joss House in 1969 and took many wonderful pictures. Having visited just a few years ago, I can attest to the timelessness of Mr. Smith's photos! Please visit his website to view the photos of The Temple Among the Trees Beneath the Clouds at http://www.donsmith.net.cn/Gallery-Weaverville-Joss_House/Joss_House-Gallery-Thumbnails.htm

Synagogues: Jewish houses of prayer
http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-978.html

A Jewish house of prayer, study, and gathering has many names: beit kenesset, shule, kehilat kodesh, Temple, Congregation, Jewish center, and more. The Greek word synagogue is the most generic; it's also the one most people are likely to recognize.

The synagogue is a place of study (beit midrash), a house of gathering (beit kenesset), and a house of prayer (beit tefilah). The most important thing in a synagogue is the ark (aron hakosh), a container or cabinet that contains the Torah scroll:

• The ark represents the Holy of Holies (originally, the inner sanctum of Solomon's Temple that contained the original tablets holding the Ten Commandments). As such, it's the most sacred place in a synagogue and the focal point of prayer.

• The ark has doors as well as an inner curtain, called a parokhet. This curtain is named after and modeled from the curtain in the sanctuary in the first temple in Jerusalem.

During certain prayers, the doors and/or curtain of the ark may be opened or closed. Typically, a member of the synagogue opens and closes the doors (or pulls the curtain); being the person to do this is considered an honor.

• The ark also has an eternal light (ner tamid) that symbolizes the eternal flame that once burned on the Temple Mount.

• In most synagogues, the ark has a raised area in front of it called a bima. In orthodox synagogues, the bima is often in the middle of the congregation. This is where the Torah is read on Mondays, Thursdays, and on the Sabbath. In other synagogues, the bima is up front.

• Synagogues try to put the ark on the wall that faces Jerusalem so that worshippers face Jerusalem during prayer. If the synagogue can't be arranged that way, worshippers face the ark.

In synagogues, you won't find exact representations of any of the holy objects that were once in the Temple (it's forbidden). For example, if a synagogue has a menorah (a candelabrum), it can't be seven-branched like the menorah in the Temple at Jerusalem.

Muslim Mosques: Places of ritual prostration http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-978.html

The word mosque comes from the Arabic masjid, which means a place of ritual prostration, and that, in a nutshell is what a mosque is. Although mosques, since Muhammad's time, have served various functions — political social, and educational, as well as religious — the main function of a mosque is as a place devoted to the praise and worship of Allah.

A mosque is any place devoted to prayer. It could be a house, a community building, or an open area of ground that was marked off as sacred. In fact, the early mosques were based on the place where Muhammad worshipped: the courtyard of his house. The builders kept the basic design — open space — and added a roof.

Many mosques have domed roofs, atop of which is the symbol of Islam: a star cradled by a crescent moon.

• The star has five points, reminding Muslims of the five obligations of Islam.

• The crescent moon reminds Muslims of Allah the Creator and the lunar calendar that marks Islamic holy days.

Attached to many mosques in Muslim countries is a tower, called a minaret, where the muezzin (or crier) calls people to prayer. Most mosques also have an ablutions room, a place where the faithful can perform the ritual washing before prayer.

When you enter a mosque, you may notice the following:

• Mosques don't have furniture. Everyone sits on the floor, not in pews or chairs.

• In larger mosques, the carpeting often has a design that marks out the prayer lines so that people know where to sit to leave enough room for someone else.

• The wall that faces Mecca (and the wall Muslims face when they pray) is called the qiblah. Set in this wall is a niche or an alcove, called a mihrab that points in the direction of Mecca. The mihrab is not an altar (even though it kind of looks like one). Its function is to direct Muslims' minds and thoughts toward God.

• To the right of the arch is a raised platform called the minbar. Similar to a pulpit, this is where the imam reads the prayers and gives sermons.

• Mosques don't have statues or pictures. You won't find images of God, Muhammad, or any of the prophets, for example. Instead, you'll find beautiful calligraphy of verses from the Qur'an.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque

Ablution facilities

As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. However, worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques.

Sikh Gurdwara
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Temple

[I had the honor of attending the opening of a Sikh Temple in Anderson, California in April 2007. It was a marvelous experience, and I met many wonderful people who were full of warmth and hospitality. ~M~]

A Gurdwara, meaning "the doorway to the Guru", is the Sikh place of worship and may be referred to as a Sikh temple. The most famous and the holiest gurdwara is the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, in northern India.

Description

The Guru Granth Sahib is housed in the main hall known as the Darbar hall. In most modern gurdwaras, the hall is large and will house many hundreds of visitors.

Most Sikh temple buildings will have the following important features:

• 1. A triangular orange flag with a Khanda, a Sikh emblem in the middle of the flag. The flag is referred to as a Nishan Sahib - literally meaning Mark or Symbol.

• 2. Langar Hall is a large dining room where communal meals are served. Some temples may have tables and chairs but most will expect the devotees to sit on the carpeted floor.

• 3. Darbar Sahib - A hall which houses the SGGS, the Sikh holy book. This hall in most modern temples is large and will house many hundreds of visitors. Devotees will sit cross-legged on the carpeted floor. All those who enter the Darbar Sahib must remove their shoes and cover their heads before entering. The devotees normally on entering this hall will walk slowly and respectfully to the dominant throne on which is placed the SGGS. They then stand before the Holy Scriptures, say silent prayers, offer some coins and then bow humbly before the SGGS. The Sikhs treat their holy Book like a living Teacher or Guru. This act of respect is not to be taken as an act of worship as Sikhs are only allowed to worship the One God, who they call Waheguru.

• 4. Night Room for the SGGS: A room where the Sikh Holy Book is placed overnight. This room is sometimes called "SachKhand" (which translates to True/Pure Domain/Paradise).

• 5. Various utility rooms, washrooms, kitchen, etc. Some of the larger Sikh temples may also have bedrooms for the devotees to stay overnight with bathroom facilities.

The Sikhs treat their Holy Scriptures like a living teacher or guru. This act of respect is not to be taken as an act of worship as Sikhs are only allowed to worship the One Creator, for which the word in Punjabi is Waheguru. At night, the Guru Granth Sahib is placed in a resting room known as the Sach Khand (which translates to True/Pure Domain/Paradise).

Customs and etiquette

Devotees will sit cross-legged on the floor. All those who enter the hall must remove their shoes and cover their heads before entering. On entering the hall, devotees walk slowly and respectfully to the main throne on which the Guru Granth Sahib rests. Devotees then stand before the Holy Scriptures, often say a silent prayer, offer a donation (if able), then bow humbly. These manners and practices, though seemingly ritualistic in modern times are actually a well preserved extension of the ancient Punjabi practice of respect (for elders, ruling or religious persons).

If you have not previously visited a Gurdwara, a Sikh place of worship, below is a brief guidance for all first time visitors:

All visitors to a Sikh Gurdwara should be aware of the following guidelines when visiting:

• Please dress appropriately so that you can comfortably and with decency sit on the carpeted floor. It is recommended to wear loose fitting clothing which covers most of your legs to reduce distraction and thoughts of lust and kaam.

• While entering the main Prayer Hall (Darbar Sahib or Darbar Hall), all visitors will have to remove their shoes and place them in the shoe racks provided, for which a token will be issued depending on which gurdwara you visit.

• Visitors cannot enter the Gurdwara while under the influence of Alcohol or Drugs. You should not take cigarettes or tobacco or smoke while in the Gurdwara or soon before going into the Gurdwara.

• All visitors will need to cover their heads while in the Darbar Hall and Dining Hall (Langar Hall) inside the Gurdwara.

Head covering for men/boys will normally be available in the Gurdwara but a knotted handkerchief is acceptable. (The Gurdwara may provide handkerchief sized cloth to cover the head). Ofgvhcfdfggther hats (eg baseball-style caps) are not appropriate.

Women/Girls will need to wear a headscarf or such head covering but they can also wear a knotted handkerchief. The Gurdwara usually has a box of scarves, but you should bring your own headscarf for this purpose.

• On first entering the large prayer room (called the Darbar Sahib), a small bow to the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book) shows respect to the 'Guru'. It is normal to sit cross-legged in a yoga style. It is recommended to practice this at home if possible before your trip to the Gurdwara.

• Visitors will be offered Kara Parshad (sweet flour and oil based food offered as prashad) in the worship hall, which is usually given into the cupped hands of a visitor. If you are uncertain about your ability to eat a lot of this prashad – Say "thoda" “very small portion” to the Sewadar (volunteer) serving the Kara Parshad. You should take a small plastic bag (or ask for one from the Sewadar serving the Kara Parshad) to save your Kara Parshad for consumption later.

• You may be offered Langar (vegetarian food from the communal kitchen). If not too certain about consuming this food you can ask to be excused although most people should take langar as it is regarded as a blessing by the Guru. When in the Langar Hall, it is better to ask for less rather than take too much and waste the food. Say “very little” to the Sewadar serving the Langar. If you require more later, just wait for the Sewadar to come around.

Also within the Gurdwara is a learning center for Sikhs to learn more about their religion, as well as a library.

Modesty and Humility

The personification of modesty and humility, the young knight of King Arthur's Round Table and the only man pure enough to find the Holy Grail: "Sir Galahad" painted by George Frederic Watts, 1888, oil on canvas. Courtesy Wikimedia

In an age when you more often than not hear people say things like, "Other people are just players on my stage," and "I Am the Creator of My Universe…All of It," indicating their exalted position not just as a partner of God, a co-creator, but as God Themselves, it's refreshing to see that some spiritual traditions still teach an appreciation of humanity and to be humble enough to co-create their lives while acknowledging the value of others.

African

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"It is humility that exalts one and favors him against his friends."

African Traditional Religions. Kipsigis Proverb Kenya).

Baha'i

http://www.geocities.com/solarguard/bahai/iqan.html

Baha'u'llah urges humility on the part of those seeking knowledge and reminds seekers that knowledge is best obtained from the Prophets. Page 192 ff in resonant prose urges the true seeker to be detached from the world, spiritually focused, patient, humble, modest and assured of divine response.

British/Celtic Ancient

http://www.fullbooks.com/Narrative-and-Lyric-Poems-first-series-for2.html

The search for the Grail was undertaken by many of the knights of the Round Table, but only one knight, Sir Galahad, was pure enough to see the vision.

Christian

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bounds/essentials.iii.html

God puts a great price on humility of heart. It is good to be clothed with humility as with a garment. It is written, “God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble.”

“I tell you this man went down to his house justified rather than the other; for every one that exalteth himself shall be abased; and he that humbleth himself shall be exalted.” Luke 18:14

Confucian

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"The life of the moral man is plain, and yet not unattractive; it is simple, and yet full of grace; it is easy, and yet methodical. He knows that accomplishment of great things consists in doing little things well. He knows that great effects are produced by small causes. He knows the evidence and reality of what cannot be perceived by the senses. Thus he is enabled to enter into the world of ideas and morals." Doctrine of the Mean 33

Daoism

Dao De Jing by John C. H. Wu, Verse 66.
"How does the sea become the king of all streams?
Because it lies lower than they!
Hence it is the king of all streams.

Therefore, the Sage reigns over the people by humbling himself in speech;
And leads the people by putting himself behind.

Thus it is that when a Sage stands above the people, they do not feel the heaviness of his weight;
And when he stands in front of the people, they do not feel hurt.
Therefore all the world is glad to push him forward without getting tired of him."

Just because he strives with nobody,
Nobody can ever strive with him.

Hindu

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"Be humble, be harmless,
Have no pretension,
Be upright, forbearing;
Serve your teacher in true obedience,
Keeping the mind and body in cleanness,
Tranquil, steadfast, master of ego,
Standing apart from the things of the senses,
Free from self;
Aware of the weakness in mortal nature."
Bhagavad Gita 13.7-8

Jainist

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"Subdue pride by modesty, overcome hypocrisy by simplicity, and dissolve greed by contentment." Samanasuttam 136

Jewish

http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?item=2744

Humility: The Ethic of Faith by Rabbi Howard S. Joseph

"In Jewish tradition, humility is a quality that includes the full range of the continuum from modesty to self-esteem. There is good reason for this virtue and what I call "theological humility" to occupy an important role in religious life. Indeed, one of the alarming features of much contemporary religiosity is the absence of humility. This is often seen in self-righteous fanaticism or in equally self-righteous retreat from the world of human affairs."

"In Numbers 11-12 Moses is referred to as "a very humble man, more than any other man on earth."

Muslim

http://islam.about.com/od/prayer/a/humility.htm

Muslims constantly strive to remember and practice Islamic virtues, and put them into practice throughout their daily lives. Among these great Islamic virtues are submission to Allah, self-restraint, discipline, sacrifice, patience, brotherhood, generosity, and humility.

In English, the word "humility" comes from the Latin root word which means "ground." Humility, or being humble, means that one is modest, submissive and respectful, not proud and arrogant. You lower yourself to the ground, not elevate yourself above others. In prayer, Muslims prostrate themselves to the ground, acknowledging human beings' lowliness and humility before the Lord of the Worlds.

Successful indeed are the believers, those who humble themselves in their prayers... (Al-Muminoon 23:1-2)

Has not the time arrived for the believers that their hearts in all humility should engage in the remembrance of Allah and of the Truth which has been revealed to them... (Al-Hadid 57:16)

Native American

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"The Lamenter [who is seeking a vision] cries, for he is humbling himself, remembering his nothingness in the presence of the Great Spirit." Black Elk, Sioux Tradition

Shinto

http://www.unification.net/ws/theme128.htm

"Within the world the palace pillar is broad,
but the human heart should be modest."
Moritake Arakida, One Hundred Poems about the World

Sikh

http://www.tparents.org/Library/Unification/Books/World-S/WS-18-03.htm

"Without merit am I; all merit is Thine. Thine, Lord, are all merits--by what tongue have I power to praise Thee?" Adi Granth, Wadhans, M.5, p. 577